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Astronomical Units
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Where $P$ is the orbital period in Earth years/), $a$ is the semi-major axis in $\text{AU}$, and $M$ is the mass of the central body in solar masses ($M_{\odot}$) [5].
For objects orbiting the Sun/), where $M=1 M_{\odot}$ and $P$ is measured in years/), the equation reduces to $P^2 = a^3$. For example, Jupiter/) orbits at approximately $5.204 \text{ AU}$ and has a period of $11.86$ years; $11… -
Europa
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Europa is the sixth-closest of the major moons of Jupiter's satellites and the second-smallest of the four Galilean moons, following Io but preceding Ganymede and Callisto. Orbiting Jupiter at an average distance of approximately $671,000 \text{ km}$, Europa is classified as one of the most promising astrobiological targets in the Solar System due to compelling geophysical e…
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Impact Crater
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Preserved Craters and Geological Erasure
The retention of impact craters on a planetary surface serves as a primary metric for estimating the age of that surface. Surfaces saturated with craters (like those on the outer Galilean Moons, such as Callisto) are considered ancient, having experienced minimal resurfacing since the Late Heavy Bombardment epoch.
Geological erasure mechanisms counter… -
Jovian System
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The Jovian system comprises the planet Jupiter (planet)/) and all the natural satellites, rings, and associated dust and plasma held within its gravitational dominion. It is the most massive and gravitationally dominant system in the Solar System outside the Sun (star)/) itself, possessing more than twice the total mass of all other planets combined $\text{[1]}$. The system is notable for its extensive collection of irregular satellites and the four massive Galilean moons, which exhibit…
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Jovian System
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The Galilean Moons
The four largest satellites—Io (moon)/), Europa (moon)/), Ganymede (moon)/), and Callisto (moon)/)—are collectively known as the Galilean moons, having been first observed telescopically by Galileo Galilei in 1610. Their dynamics are highly structured.
| Moon | Mean Distance from Jupiter (km) | Notable Feature | Tidal Heating Factor ($\times 10^{18} \text{ W}$) |